Where is choline found in foods

Association between composition of the human gastrointestinal microbiome and development of fatty liver with choline deficiency. Intestinal microbial metabolism of phosphatidylcholine and cardiovascular risk.

N Engl J Med. Gut flora metabolism of phosphatidylcholine promotes cardiovascular disease. Folate nutriture alters choline status of women and men fed low choline diets. J Nutr. Severe folate deficiency causes secondary depletion of choline and phosphocholine in rat liver. Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine.

Washington D. National Academy Press. Zhou J, Austin RC. Contributions of hyperhomocysteinemia to atherosclerosis: Causal relationship and potential mechanisms. Serum homocysteine levels, oxidative stress and cardiovascular risk in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Eur J Intern Med. Choline supplemented as phosphatidylcholine decreases fasting and postmethionine-loading plasma homocysteine concentrations in healthy men. Low dose betaine supplementation leads to immediate and long term lowering of plasma homocysteine in healthy men and women.

Betaine supplementation decreases plasma homocysteine concentrations but does not affect body weight, body composition, or resting energy expenditure in human subjects. Betaine supplementation lowers plasma homocysteine in healthy men and women.

Prospective study on dietary intakes of folate, betaine, and choline and cardiovascular disease risk in women. Eur J Clin Nutr. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. Plasma homocysteine, dietary B vitamins, betaine, and choline and risk of peripheral artery disease. Clin Chem. Betaine and secondary events in an acute coronary syndrome cohort. PLoS One. Divergent associations of plasma choline and betaine with components of metabolic syndrome in middle age and elderly men and women. Higher dietary choline intake is associated with lower risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver in normal-weight Chinese women.

Choline intake in a large cohort of patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Talaulikar VS, Arulkumaran S. Folic acid in obstetric practice: a review. Obstet Gynecol Surv. Folate deficiency and folic acid supplementation: the prevention of neural-tube defects and congenital heart defects. Eskes TK. Open or closed? A world of difference: a history of homocysteine research. Nutr Rev. Periconceptional dietary intake of choline and betaine and neural tube defects in offspring.

Am J Epidemiol. Periconceptional nutrient intakes and risks of neural tube defects in California. Neural tube defects and maternal intake of micronutrients related to one-carbon metabolism or antioxidant activity.

Choline and risk of neural tube defects in a folate-fortified population. Maternal choline concentrations during pregnancy and choline-related genetic variants as risk factors for neural tube defects. Dietary cytidine 5' -diphosphocholine supplementation protects against development of memory deficits in aging rats. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. Choline: critical role during fetal development and dietary requirements in adults.

An overview of evidence for a causal relationship between dietary availability of choline during development and cognitive function in offspring. Neurosci Biobehav Rev.

Dauncey MJ. Nutrition, the brain and cognitive decline: insights from epigenetics. Choline status and neurodevelopmental outcomes at 5 years of age in the Seychelles Child Development Nutrition Study. Br J Nutr. Maternal intake of methyl-donor nutrients and child cognition at 3 years of age.

Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. Choline intake during pregnancy and child cognition at age 7 years. Phosphatidylcholine supplementation in pregnant women consuming moderate-choline diets does not enhance infant cognitive function: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.

Effects of homocysteine lowering with B vitamins on cognitive aging: meta-analysis of 11 trials with cognitive data on 22, individuals. The relation of dietary choline to cognitive performance and white-matter hyperintensity in the Framingham Offspring Cohort. Plasma free choline, betaine and cognitive performance: the Hordaland Health Study. The association of betaine, homocysteine and related metabolites with cognitive function in Dutch elderly people.

Grieb P. Neuroprotective properties of citicoline: facts, doubts and unresolved issues. CNS Drugs. Retrospective and observational study to assess the efficacy of citicoline in elderly patients suffering from stupor related to complex geriatric syndrome.

Clin Interv Aging. Citicoline in the treatment of acute ischaemic stroke: an international, randomised, multicentre, placebo-controlled study ICTUS trial. Fioravanti M, Yanagi M.

Cytidinediphosphocholine CDP-choline for cognitive and behavioural disturbances associated with chronic cerebral disorders in the elderly. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. Long-term treatment with citicoline may improve poststroke vascular cognitive impairment.

Cerebrovasc Dis. Birks J. Cholinesterase inhibitors for Alzheimer's disease. Higgins JP, Flicker L. Lecithin for dementia and cognitive impairment. Double-blind placebo-controlled study with citicoline in APOE genotyped Alzheimer's disease patients. Effects on cognitive performance, brain bioelectrical activity and cerebral perfusion. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol.

Gupta N, Yucel YH. Glaucoma as a neurodegenerative disease. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. Parisi V. Electrophysiological assessment of glaucomatous visual dysfunction during treatment with cytidine-5'-diphosphocholine citicoline : a study of 8 years of follow-up.

Doc Ophthalmol. Cytidine-5'-diphosphocholine Citicoline : a pilot study in patients with non-arteritic ischaemic optic neuropathy. Eur J Neurol. Citicoline oral solution in glaucoma: is there a role in slowing disease progression? National Institutes of Health. Dietary Supplement Label Database. Choline metabolism provides novel insights into nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and its progression.

Curr Opin Gastroenterol ; Public Health Nutr ; Pre- and postnatal health: evidence of increased choline needs. J Am Diet Assoc ; Low plasma vitamin B is associated with a lower pregnancy-associated rise in plasma free choline in Canadian pregnant women and lower postnatal growth rates in their male infants. Am J Clin Nutr ; J Nutr Biochem ; Am J Hum Genet ; Early second trimester maternal plasma choline and betaine are related to measures of early cognitive development in term infants.

PLoS One ;7:e Choline and risk of neural tube defects in a folate-fortified population. Epidemiology ; Maternal choline concentrations during pregnancy and choline-related genetic variants as risk factors for neural tube defects. Importance of choline as essential nutrient and its role in prevention of various toxicities.

Prague Med Rep ; The addition of choline to parenteral nutrition. Gastroenterology ;S Verbal and visual memory improve after choline supplementation in long-term total parenteral nutrition: a pilot study. Low plasma free choline is prevalent in patients receiving long term parenteral nutrition and is associated with hepatic aminotransferase abnormalities.

Clin Nutr ; Whole-blood-free choline and choline metabolites in infants who require chronic parenteral nutrition therapy. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr ; Dietary phosphatidylcholine and risk of all-cause and cardiovascular-specific mortality among US women and men.

Intestinal microbial metabolism of phosphatidylcholine and cardiovascular risk. N Engl J Med ; Plasma homocysteine, dietary B vitamins, betaine, and choline and risk of peripheral artery disease. Atherosclerosis ; BMC Cardiovasc Disord ; Prospective study on dietary intakes of folate, betaine, and choline and cardiovascular disease risk in women. Eur J Clin Nutr ; Lecithin for dementia and cognitive impairment. Plasma free choline, betaine and cognitive performance: the Hordaland Health Study.

Br J Nutr ; The relation of dietary choline to cognitive performance and white-matter hyperintensity in the Framingham Offspring Cohort. Improved human visuomotor performance and pupil constriction after choline supplementation in a placebo-controlled double-blind study. Sci Rep ; Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, diet and gut microbiota. Excli j ; Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: need for a balanced nutritional source. Choline deficiency: a cause of hepatic steatosis during parenteral nutrition that can be reversed with intravenous choline supplementation.

Hepatology ; Your browsing experience may be affected by not having the most up to date version. JavaScript has been disabled in your browser. Please enable JavaScript to experience the full functionality of our website. With eggs providing some of the highest quantities of choline of any food, Australian Eggs has delved into what exactly choline is, how it benefits our bodies, and where you can find this important micronutrient in your daily diet.

Choline is a nutrient that is made in the liver. However, as most people don't produce enough choline to meet daily requirements, it also needs to be provided through the food that we eat. Choline is essential for normal human health and due to its similarity in function to the B vitamins, it is commonly grouped together with them.

Research suggests that choline plays an important role in brain and spinal cord development during pregnancy, cognitive development in infants and may also help prevent cognitive decline in the elderly. Until recently, the role of choline as part of a balanced diet had been largely overlooked. Grains were boiled in 2 parts water and then simmered for 20 min.

Brown rice was boiled in 1 part water then simmered for 20 min. One half of the bird was analyzed with skin, the other without. Plain muffins were prepared according to a recipe NDB Mashed potatoes were prepared by boiling minced potatoes and adding whole milk and mashing until a smooth texture was achieved; no salt or butter was added.

ND, not detected. In parentheses after the food item name is indicated the number of samples different brands or regions assayed in duplicate and averaged to generate provided value.

Denotes food items purchased locally in Chapel Hill, NC; all others were national samplings. After cooling, foods were finely chopped using a food processor. Dry foods were ground with a mortar and pestle. Canned vegetables and soups were mixed in a blender. Fresh produce, fast food sandwiches, cheese, dried fruits, nuts, chocolate candy and muffins were immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen before blending, and kept frozen during and after homogenization.

Liquids e. Salad dressings and whole eggs were blended with a hand-held blender Cuisinart. Food items that were picked up locally were processed in a similar manner. Homogenates of foods were shipped to the University of North Carolina on dry ice.

Choline compounds were extracted from foods using the procedure of Bligh and Dyer 28 , spiked with deuterium-labeled internal standards of all the analytes and analyzed using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-isotope dilution mass spectrometry as previously described Quality assurance was monitored through the use of duplicate sampling, in-house control materials, and Standard Reference Materials.

When choline is taken up by most tissues it is either converted to betaine and then used as an osmolyte and methyl donor, or it is phosphorylated and then used for the synthesis of phospholipids see Fig. Because there are metabolic pathways for the interconversion of choline, PCho, GPCho, SM and PtdCho 1 , we present the sum of the concentrations of these compounds as total choline concentration. The conversion of choline to betaine is irreversible 1 ; thus, we present this value separately.

Metabolic pathways for choline and betaine. The formation of betaine Bet from Cho is irreversible. Betaine can donate a methyl group to homocysteine Hcy to form methionine Met. Met is converted to S -adenosylmethionine SAM , which is an important methyl donor. Folate and Cho metabolism intersect because methyltetrahydrofolate Methyl-THF , a product of folate metabolism, can also donate a methyl group for the formation of Met from Hcy.

We present the values for individual choline compounds because these choline sources may have differing bioavailability from foods We did not measure acetylcholine or cytidinediphosphocholine CDP -choline concentrations in foods because they are present in minor amounts. Choline and PtdCho are absorbed by mediated transport in the small intestines 31 , We know little about the absorption of the other choline compounds found in foods.

We do know that water-soluble choline compounds are absorbed via the portal circulation, whereas the lipid-soluble compounds present in foods are partially hydrolyzed by phospholipases and then absorbed via the thoracic duct and by-pass the liver 1. When both cooked and raw vegetables were analyzed, we observed that total choline content of the foods per g remained similar Table 1.

Free choline concentration was lower when the food was cooked, whereas the choline in PtdCho was proportionately higher. We discovered that when raw vegetables were finely minced, phospholipase D was activated, resulting in the conversion of PtdCho to phosphatidic acid and choline assessed using TLC, data not shown.

We present values for raw vegetables despite this mincing artifact, because chewing foods should produce the same result, i. Methyltetrahydrofolate and choline are major dietary methyl donors that are metabolically interrelated 1. Both regulate the formation of S -adenosylmethionine, and thereby influence methylation reactions.

Diminished folate availability increases demand for choline as a methyl donor 34 , and decreased choline availability increases demand for folate methyl groups For this reason, both methyl donors must be considered in any attempts to understand how methyl status could be mechanistically related to disease processes. Epidemiologists have been interested in methyl metabolism as it relates to chronic diseases.

Others have examined dietary folate intake and heart disease 16 , and clinical trials indicated efficacy for increased diet folic acid intake in hypertension and restenosis of coronary arteries 36 , These studies focused on the folate and methionine content of diet, but did not include dietary choline intake as a variable because data were not available on the choline concentration of common foods.

Reanalysis of these studies, using the food data we now provide, may identify important interactions between dietary choline and folic acid. Perhaps the most affected groups will be those consuming diets low in both methyl donors. In such analyses, both total choline and betaine should be considered as fungible sources of methyl groups.

In other studies in which the suspected mechanism of action is not methyl donation, but rather via the role of choline as a neurotransmitter precursor or membrane precursor, the value for total choline without betaine might be preferred because betaine cannot be converted into acetylcholine or membrane phospholipids.